Human Anatomy and Physiology 2 Notes
Download notes for Human Anatomy and Physiology 2, covering the following topics: a short note on growth hormone, the functions of the liver, the menstrual cycle, a labeled diagram of the male reproductive system, and a labeled diagram of the female reproductive system. Available in PDF/PPT format.
Keywords: Human Anatomy and Physiology, Growth Hormone, Liver Functions, Menstrual Cycle, Male Reproductive System, Female Reproductive System, Diagram, B.Pharm, PDF, PPT, Download.
Human Anatomy and Physiology 2 - Specific Topics
1. Short Note on Growth Hormone (GH)
Growth hormone (GH), also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Its primary function is to stimulate growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration. GH acts directly on tissues and also indirectly by stimulating the liver to produce insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). Key effects of GH include:
- Stimulates linear growth in children: GH promotes the growth of bones and cartilage.
- Increases muscle mass: GH stimulates protein synthesis and inhibits protein breakdown.
- Decreases body fat: GH promotes the breakdown of fat (lipolysis).
- Regulates metabolism: GH affects carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism.
GH secretion is regulated by the hypothalamus, which releases growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH, also known as somatostatin). GH secretion is pulsatile, with the highest levels occurring during sleep. Disorders of GH secretion can lead to gigantism (excess GH before puberty), acromegaly (excess GH after puberty), or dwarfism (GH deficiency).
2. Functions of the Liver
The liver is the largest internal organ and performs a wide range of vital functions, including:
- Bile Production: The liver produces bile, which is essential for the digestion and absorption of fats. Bile contains bile salts, cholesterol, and bilirubin (a breakdown product of red blood cells).
- Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats: The liver plays a central role in regulating blood glucose levels (glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis). It also synthesizes plasma proteins (e.g., albumin, clotting factors), converts amino acids, and metabolizes fats.
- Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances, such as drugs, alcohol, and toxins, by converting them into less harmful forms that can be excreted.
- Storage: The liver stores glycogen, vitamins (A, D, E, K, B12), and minerals (iron, copper).
- Synthesis of Clotting Factors: The liver produces most of the proteins involved in blood clotting.
- Phagocytosis- removal of damaged blood cells.
- Blood Reservoir: The liver can store a significant amount of blood.
- Activation of Vitamin D: The liver participates in the activation of vitamin D.
3. Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual cycle is a recurring series of hormonal and physical changes in the female reproductive system, preparing the body for potential pregnancy. It typically lasts around 28 days (but can vary). The cycle is divided into phases:
- Menstrual Phase (Days 1-5): The uterine lining (endometrium) is shed if fertilization hasn't occurred, resulting in menstrual bleeding. Low levels of estrogen and progesterone.
- Follicular Phase (Days 1-14): Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the pituitary gland stimulates the growth of follicles in the ovaries. One follicle becomes dominant and produces increasing amounts of estrogen. Estrogen causes the endometrium to thicken.
- Ovulation (Around Day 14): A surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland triggers the release of a mature ovum from the dominant follicle.
- Luteal Phase (Days 15-28): The ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and estrogen. Progesterone further prepares the endometrium for implantation. If fertilization doesn't occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, leading to a drop in hormone levels and the start of the next menstrual cycle.
4. Labeled Diagram of the Male Reproductive System (Textual Description)
(Note: This is a textual description. The actual labeled diagram is assumed to be in the PDF/PPT.)
A labeled diagram of the male reproductive system would typically show the following structures, with lines pointing to each and labels identifying them:
- Testes (Testicles): Oval-shaped organs within the scrotum.
- Scrotum: A sac of skin that contains the testes.
- Epididymis: A coiled tube located on the posterior surface of each testis.
- Vas Deferens (Ductus Deferens): A muscular tube that extends from the epididymis.
- Seminal Vesicles: Paired glands located posterior to the bladder.
- Ejaculatory Ducts: Short ducts formed by the union of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicle duct.
- Prostate Gland: A gland located inferior to the bladder, surrounding the urethra.
- Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper's Glands): Small, paired glands located inferior to the prostate.
- Urethra: A tube that passes through the penis.
- Penis: The external male organ, composed of three columns of erectile tissue (two corpora cavernosa and one corpus spongiosum).
5. Labeled Diagram of the Female Reproductive System (Textual Description)
(Note: This is a textual description. The actual labeled diagram is assumed to be in the PDF/PPT.)
A labeled diagram of the female reproductive system would typically show the following structures, with lines pointing to each and labels identifying them:
- Ovaries: Paired, almond-shaped organs located in the pelvic cavity.
- Fallopian Tubes (Uterine Tubes): Tubes extending from the ovaries to the uterus. Fimbriae (finger-like projections) are located at the ovarian end.
- Uterus (Womb): A pear-shaped organ located in the pelvic cavity. Regions include the fundus, body, and cervix. Layers include the perimetrium, myometrium, and endometrium.
- Cervix: The lower part of the uterus, connecting to the vagina.
- Vagina: A muscular canal extending from the cervix to the exterior of the body.
- External Genitalia (Vulva): Includes the labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and vaginal opening.
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